Наблюдение в психологии это: Наблюдение: метод исследования в психологии

Наблюдение (психология) — Википедия. Что такое Наблюдение (психология)

Наблюде́ние — описательный психологический исследовательский метод, заключающийся в целенаправленном и организованном восприятии и регистрации поведения изучаемого объекта. Наблюдение — организованное, целенаправленное, фиксируемое восприятие психических явлений с целью их изучения в определённых условиях.

Общие сведения

Вместе с интроспекцией наблюдение считается старейшим психологическим методом. Научное наблюдение стало широко применяться, начиная с конца XIX века, в областях, где особенное значение имеет фиксация особенностей поведения человека в различных условиях, — в клинической, социальной, педагогической психологии, психологии развития, а с начала XX века — в психологии труда.

Наблюдение применяется там, где вмешательство экспериментатора нарушит процесс взаимодействия человека со средой. Этот метод незаменим в случае, когда необходимо получить целостную картину происходящего и отразить поведение индивидов во всей полноте.

Главными особенностями метода наблюдения являются: — непосредственная связь наблюдателя и наблюдаемого объекта; — пристрастность (эмоциональная окрашенность) наблюдения; — сложность (порой — невозможность) повторного наблюдения. В естественных условиях наблюдатель, как правило, не влияет на изучаемый процесс (явление). В психологии существует проблема взаимодействия наблюдателя и наблюдаемого. Если испытуемый знает, что за ним наблюдают, то присутствие исследователя оказывает влияние на его поведение. Ограниченность метода наблюдения вызвала к жизни другие, более «совершенные» методы эмпирического исследования: эксперимент и измерение^[1].

Предмет наблюдения

• Вербальное поведение
  • Содержание речи
  • Продолжительность речи
  • Интенсивность речи
  • И др.
• Невербальное поведение
  • Экспрессия лица, глаз, тела,
  • Выразительные движения
  • И др.
• Перемещения людей
• Дистанция между людьми
• Физические воздействия
  • Касания
  • Толчки
  • Удары
  • побои
  • И др.

И т. д.

То есть предметом наблюдения способно выступать лишь то, что возможно объективно зарегистрировать. Таким образом, исследователь не наблюдает свойства психики, он регистрирует лишь те проявления объекта, которые доступны для фиксации. И только исходя из предположения о том, что психика находит своё проявление в поведении, психолог может строить гипотезы о психических свойствах, основываясь на данных, полученных при наблюдении.

Средства наблюдения

Наблюдение может осуществляться непосредственно исследователем, либо посредством приборов наблюдения и фиксации его результатов. В их число входит аудио-, фото-, видеоаппаратура, особые карты наблюдения.

Классификация наблюдений

Наблюдением называется целенаправленное, организованное и определённым образом фиксируемое восприятие исследуемого объекта. Результаты фиксации данных наблюдения называются описанием поведения объекта. Наблюдение применяется тогда, когда либо невозможно, либо непозволительно вмешиваться в естественное течение процесса. Оно может быть: 1. Непосредственным и опосредованным, 2. Внешним и внутренним, 3. Включенным (которое может быть открытым и закрытым) и невключенным, 4. Прямым и косвенным, 5. Сплошным и выборочным (по определённым параметрам), 6. Полевым (в повседневной жизни) и лабораторным.

По систематичности различают

• Несистематическое наблюдение, при котором необходимо создать обобщённую картину поведения индивида или группы индивидов в определённых условиях и не ставится цель фиксировать причинные зависимости и давать строгие описания явлений.
• Систематическое наблюдение, проводящееся по определённому плану и при котором исследователь регистрирует особенности поведения и классифицирует условия внешней среды.

Несистематическое наблюдение проводится в ходе полевого исследования (применяется в этнопсихологии, психологии развития, социальной психологии). Результат: создание обобщённой картины поведения индивида либо группы в определённых условиях. Систематическое наблюдение проводится по определённому плану. Результат: регистрация особенностей поведения (переменные) и классификация условий внешней среды.

Наблюдение противопоставляется эксперименту. Это противопоставление основано на двух положениях:

• Пассивность наблюдателя — наблюдатель не изменяет окружающую реальность.
• Непосредственность — наблюдатель фиксирует в протоколе то, что видит.

По фиксируемым объектам

• Сплошное наблюдение. Исследователь старается фиксировать все особенности поведения.
• Выборочное наблюдение. Исследователь фиксирует лишь определённые типы поведенческих актов или параметры поведения^[2].

По форме наблюдения

• Осознанное наблюдение
• Неосознанное внутреннее наблюдение
• Неосознанное внешнее наблюдение
• Наблюдение окружающей среды

Осознанное наблюдение

При осознанном наблюдении наблюдаемому человеку известно о том, что за ним наблюдают. Такое наблюдение проводится в контакте исследователя с субъектом, причём наблюдаемый обычно пребывает в курсе задачи исследования и социального статуса наблюдателя. Однако бывают случаи, когда в силу специфики исследования наблюдаемому человеку сообщаются иные по сравнению с подлинными цели наблюдения. Необходимость подобных действий порождает этические проблемы в том числе и относительно сделанных выводов.

Данная форма наблюдения выбирается исходя из целесообразности, то есть, когда её использование оправдано задачами исследования, так как она обладает весомыми недостатками.

Недостатки: влияние наблюдателя на поведение наблюдаемого, из-за этого результаты могут рассматриваться только применительно к той ситуации, в которой они были получены. Необходимо делать несколько наблюдений.

Особенности

Наблюдатель непосредственно влияет на действия и поведение наблюдаемого, что при некорректной постановке наблюдения может сильно повлиять на его результаты. Наблюдаемые субъекты в силу психологических причин могут попытаться выдать ложное поведение за своё обычное или же попросту смутиться и дать волю эмоциям. Ситуация, когда субъект пребывает под наблюдением, может оказаться для него близкой к стрессовой, и результаты такого наблюдения нельзя будет распространить, допустим, на его повседневную жизнь. Также на действия и наблюдателя, и наблюдаемого может повлиять степень знакомства друг с другом.

Специфичность ситуаций, в которых происходит непосредственное (осознанное) наблюдение, приводит к тому, что выводы из таких наблюдений очень сложно корректно обобщить на другие ситуации, а не только на конкретную ситуацию, в которой происходила процедура наблюдения.

Неосознанное внутреннее наблюдение

При неосознанном внутреннем наблюдении наблюдаемым субъектам неизвестно о том, что за ними наблюдают, а исследователь-наблюдатель находится внутри системы наблюдения, становится её частью (например, когда психолог внедряется в хулиганскую группировку и не сообщает о целях своего внедрения, чтобы получить наиболее объективные сведения о её деятельности).

Классический пример применения неосознанного внутреннего наблюдения

Данная форма наблюдения особенно широко применялась во второй половине XX века психологами США. Применение этого метода вызывало (и вызывает поныне) дискуссии касательно допустимости таких исследований. Одним из самых известных случаев его применения можно считать исследование Леона Фестингера (Festinger et al., 1956), разработавшего теорию когнитивного диссонанса.

Чтобы проверить свою теорию, на рубеже 1940-х и 1950-х годов он с группой наблюдателей на несколько недель присоединился к религиозной группе, в которой предсказывали конкретную дату конца света (который должен был наступить через несколько недель). Конца света не последовало, а исследователи получили подтверждение теории когнитивного диссонанса, так как большинство членов группы стали убеждать себя, что их деятельность предотвратила катастрофу (Дж. Гудвин, 2004)^[3][4].

Наблюдатель контактирует с наблюдаемыми субъектами, но те не осведомлены о его роли в качестве наблюдателя.

Данная форма наблюдения особенно удобна для исследования социального поведения малых групп, при этом присутствие наблюдателя считается естественным, и факт того, что его роль заключается в наблюдении, будучи неизвестным наблюдаемым субъектам, не влияет на их действия. Эта форма наблюдения также ставит некоторые этические вопросы о границах допустимости её применения, так как психологу иногда приходится внедряться в группу путём обмана или сокрытия правды.

Недостаток: трудность фиксации результатов; наблюдатель может быть вовлечен в конфликт ценностей.

Особенности

Факт того, что ведётся наблюдение, не влияет на наблюдаемых субъектов благодаря тому, что они о нём не знают. Также наблюдатель получает широкий простор для получения информации из-за возможности непосредственного контакта с наблюдаемыми субъектами.

Однако у наблюдателя могут возникнуть трудности с непосредственной фиксацией результатов, в том числе и потому, что непосредственная запись может демаскировать наблюдателя. Также наблюдатель при близких контактах с наблюдаемыми может потерять нейтральность и перенять систему ценностей изучаемой группы. Возможен также и конфликт системы ценностей этой группы и системой ценностей, которой придерживается наблюдатель (так называемый «конфликт норм»).

Неосознанное внешнее наблюдение

При неосознанном внешнем наблюдении наблюдаемым субъектам неизвестно о том, что за ними наблюдают, а исследователь ведёт свои наблюдения, не входя в непосредственный контакт с объектом наблюдения (например, наблюдатель может быть скрыт от наблюдаемого за односторонне прозрачной стенкой).

Данная форма наблюдения удобна тем, что исследователь не стесняет поведение наблюдаемых и не провоцирует акты их поведения, которые бы соответствовали целям его исследования, то есть она позволяет собрать достаточно объективные данные о поведении людей.

Особенности

При такой форме наблюдения присутствие исследователя в роли наблюдателя не фиксируется наблюдаемыми, тем самым уменьшается влияние на естественность их действий. Также возможно использование технических и других средств для облегчения регистрации данных и хода исследования. Ещё один несравненный плюс в том, что уставший наблюдатель может быть незаметно сменён другим наблюдателем.

Однако вместе с тем наблюдатель ограничен в своих действиях местом наблюдения, ему может быть доступна только часть контекстной ситуации, в которой производятся поведенческие акты, он не может оказать влияние на непредусмотренные события, не нарушив тем самым ход исследования.

Наблюдение окружающей среды

При такой форме наблюдения исследователь изучает условия окружающей среды наблюдаемых, которые влияют на их поведение. Он пытается сделать выводы о том, как внешние факторы обуславливают действия индивида или группы индивидов^[5].

Этический кодекс APA и наблюдения

Этический кодекс Американской психологической ассоциации (American Psychological Association (англ.), или APA) разрешает проведение наблюдений при условии соблюдения определённых правил и принятия определённых мер предосторожности. Вот некоторые из них:

• Если исследование проводится в общественном месте, то получение обоснованного согласия участников не считается необходимым. В противном же случае необходимо заручиться их согласием.
• Психологи должны делать всё возможное, чтобы избежать причинения вреда участникам исследования, а в случае невозможности его избежания — снизить предполагаемый ущерб.
• Психологи должны свести к минимуму вторжение в личную жизнь.
• Психологи не раскрывают конфиденциальные данные об участниках своих исследований.

Этапы исследования методом наблюдения

1. Определение предмета наблюдения, объекта, ситуации.
2. Выбор способа наблюдения и регистрации данных.
3. Создание плана наблюдения.
4. Выбор метода обработки результатов.
5. Собственно наблюдение.
6. Обработка и интерпретация полученной информации.

Плюсы и минусы

Преимущества метода наблюдения

• Наблюдение позволяет непосредственно охватить и зафиксировать акты поведения.
• Наблюдение позволяет одновременно охватить поведение ряда лиц по отношению друг к другу или к определённым задачам, предметам и т. д.
• Наблюдение позволяет произвести исследование независимо от готовности наблюдаемых субъектов.
• Наблюдение позволяет достичь многомерности охвата, то есть фиксации сразу по нескольким параметрам — например, вербального и невербального поведения
• Оперативность получения информации
• Относительная дешевизна метода

Недостатки метода наблюдения

• Отхождение от цели наблюдения (Получение фактов, несоответствующих целям исследования)
• Прошлый опыт исследования влияет на последующие факты наблюдения^[6]

См. также

Примечания

1. ↑ См.: Дружинин В. Н. Экспериментальная психология. — Спб.: Питер, 2002.
2. ↑ Там же. С. 40—43.
3. ↑ Festinger, L., Riecken, H. W., & Schachter, S. (1956). When prophecy fails. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press
4. ↑ Исследование в психологии: методы и планирование / Дж. Гудвин. — 3-е изд. — СПб.: Питер, 2004. С. 422—423.
5. ↑ Зароченцев К. Д., Худяков А. И. Экспериментальная психология : учебник. — М. : Проспект, 2005. — С. 45—48. — 208 с. — 3000 экз. — ISBN 5-98032-770-3.
6. ↑ Там же. С. 40—41.

Ссылки

90000 6.5 Observational Research — Research Methods in Psychology 90001 90002 Learning Objectives 90003 90004 90005 List the various types of observational research methods and distinguish between each 90006 90005 Describe the strengths and weakness of each observational research method. 90006 90009 90010 90011 What Is Observational Research? 90012 90013 90014 The term 90011 observational research 90012 is used to refer to several different types of non-experimental studies in which behavior is systematically observed and recorded.The goal of observational research is to describe a variable or set of variables. More generally, the goal is to obtain a snapshot of specific characteristics of an individual, group, or setting. As described previously, observational research is non-experimental because nothing is manipulated or controlled, and as such we can not arrive at causal conclusions using this approach. The data that are collected in observational research studies are often qualitative in nature but they may also be quantitative or both (mixed-methods).There are several different types of observational research designs that will be described below. 90017 90010 90011 Naturalistic Observation 90012 90013 90014 90011 Naturalistic observation 90012 is an observational method that involves observing people’s behavior in the environment in which it typically occurs. Thus naturalistic observation is a type of field research (as opposed to a type of laboratory research). Jane Goodall’s famous research on chimpanzees is a classic example of naturalistic observation.Dr. Goodall spent three decades observing chimpanzees in their natural environment in East Africa. She examined such things as chimpanzee’s social structure, mating patterns, gender roles, family structure, and care of offspring by observing them in the wild. However, naturalistic observation could more simply involve observing shoppers in a grocery store, children on a school playground, or psychiatric inpatients in their wards. Researchers engaged in naturalistic observation usually make their observations as unobtrusively as possible so that participants are not aware that they are being studied.Such an approach is called 90011 disguised naturalistic observation. 90012 Ethically, this method is considered to be acceptable if the participants remain anonymous and the behavior occurs in a public setting where people would not normally have an expectation of privacy. Grocery shoppers putting items into their shopping carts, for example, are engaged in public behavior that is easily observable by store employees and other shoppers. For this reason, most researchers would consider it ethically acceptable to observe them for a study.On the other hand, one of the arguments against the ethicality of the naturalistic observation of «bathroom behavior» discussed earlier in the book is that people have a reasonable expectation of privacy even in a public restroom and that this expectation was violated. 90017 90014 In cases where it is not ethical or practical to conduct disguised naturalistic observation, researchers can conduct 90011 undisguised naturalistic observation 90012 where the participants are made aware of the researcher presence and monitoring of their behavior.However, one concern with undisguised naturalistic observation is reactivity. 90011 Reactivity 90012 refers to when a measure changes participants ‘behavior. In the case of undisguised naturalistic observation, the concern with reactivity is that when people know they are being observed and studied, they may act differently than they normally would. For instance, you may act much differently in a bar if you know that someone is observing you and recording your behaviors and this would invalidate the study.So disguised observation is less reactive and therefore can have higher validity because people are not aware that their behaviors are being observed and recorded. However, we now know that people often become used to being observed and with time they begin to behave naturally in the researcher’s presence. In other words, over time people habituate to being observed. Think about reality shows like Big Brother or Survivor where people are constantly being observed and recorded. While they may be on their best behavior at first, in a fairly short amount of time they are, flirting, having sex, wearing next to nothing, screaming at each other, and at times acting like complete fools in front of the entire nation.90017 90010 90011 Participant Observation 90012 90013 90014 Another approach to data collection in observational research is participant observation. In 90011 participant observation 90012, researchers become active participants in the group or situation they are studying. Participant observation is very similar to naturalistic observation in that it involves observing people’s behavior in the environment in which it typically occurs. As with naturalistic observation, the data that is collected can include interviews (usually unstructured), notes based on their observations and interactions, documents, photographs, and other artifacts.The only difference between naturalistic observation and participant observation is that researchers engaged in participant observation become active members of the group or situations they are studying. The basic rationale for participant observation is that there may be important information that is only accessible to, or can be interpreted only by, someone who is an active participant in the group or situation. Like naturalistic observation, participant observation can be either disguised or undisguised.In 90011 disguised participant observation, 90012 the researchers pretend to be members of the social group they are observing and conceal their true identity as researchers. In contrast with 90011 undisguised participant observation, 90012 the researchers become a part of the group they are studying and they disclose their true identity as researchers to the group under investigation. Once again there are important ethical issues to consider with disguised participant observation. First no informed consent can be obtained and second passive deception is being used.The researcher is passively deceiving the participants by intentionally withholding information about their motivations for being a part of the social group they are studying. But sometimes disguised participation is the only way to access a protective group (like a cult). Further, disguised participant observation is less prone to reactivity than undisguised participant observation. 90017 90014 Rosenhan’s study (1973) of the experience of people in a psychiatric ward would be considered disguised participant observation because Rosenhan and his pseudopatients were admitted into psychiatric hospitals on the pretense of being patients so that they could observe the way that psychiatric patients are treated by staff.The staff and other patients were unaware of their true identities as researchers. 90017 90014 Another example of participant observation comes from a study by sociologist Amy Wilkins (published in 90049 Social Psychology Quarterly 90050) on a university-based religious organization that emphasized how happy its members were (Wilkins, 2008). Wilkins spent 12 months attending and participating in the group’s meetings and social events, and she interviewed several group members. In her study, Wilkins identified several ways in which the group «enforced» happiness-for example, by continually talking about happiness, discouraging the expression of negative emotions, and using happiness as a way to distinguish themselves from other groups.90017 90014 One of the primary benefits of participant observation is that the researcher is in a much better position to understand the viewpoint and experiences of the people they are studying when they are apart of the social group. The primary limitation with this approach is that the mere presence of the observer could affect the behavior of the people being observed. While this is also a concern with naturalistic observation when researchers because active members of the social group they are studying, additional concerns arise that they may change the social dynamics and / or influence the behavior of the people they are studying.Similarly, if the researcher acts as a participant observer there can be concerns with biases resulting from developing relationships with the participants. Concretely, the researcher may become less objective resulting in more experimenter bias. 90017 90010 90011 Structured Observation 90012 90013 90014 Another observational method is structured observation. Here the investigator makes careful observations of one or more specific behaviors in a particular setting that is more structured than the settings used in naturalistic and participant observation.Often the setting in which the observations are made is not the natural setting, rather the researcher may observe people in the laboratory environment. Alternatively, the researcher may observe people in a natural setting (like a classroom setting) that they have structured some way, for instance by introducing some specific task participants are to engage in or by introducing a specific social situation or manipulation. Structured observation is very similar to naturalistic observation and participant observation in that in all cases researchers are observing naturally occurring behavior, however, the emphasis in structured observation is on gathering quantitative rather than qualitative data.Researchers using this approach are interested in a limited set of behaviors. This allows them to quantify the behaviors they are observing. In other words, structured observation is less global than naturalistic and participant observation because the researcher engaged in structured observations is interested in a small number of specific behaviors. Therefore, rather than recording everything that happens, the researcher only focuses on very specific behaviors of interest. 90017 90014 Structured observation is very similar to naturalistic observation and participant observation in that in all cases researchers are observing naturally occurring behavior, however, the emphasis in structured observation is on gathering quantitative rather than qualitative data.Researchers using this approach are interested in a limited set of behaviors. This allows them to quantify the behaviors they are observing. In other words, structured observation is less global than naturalistic and participant observation because the researcher engaged in structured observations is interested in a small number of specific behaviors. Therefore, rather than recording everything that happens, the researcher only focuses on very specific behaviors of interest. 90017 90014 Researchers Robert Levine and Ara Norenzayan used structured observation to study differences in the «pace of life» across countries (Levine & Norenzayan, 1999).One of their measures involved observing pedestrians in a large city to see how long it took them to walk 60 feet. They found that people in some countries walked reliably faster than people in other countries. For example, people in Canada and Sweden covered 60 feet in just under 13 seconds on average, while people in Brazil and Romania took close to 17 seconds. When structured observation takes place in the complex and even chaotic «real world,» the questions of when, where, and under what conditions the observations will be made, and who exactly will be observed are important to consider.Levine and Norenzayan described their sampling process as follows: 90017 90014 «Male and female walking speed over a distance of 60 feet was measured in at least two locations in main downtown areas in each city. Measurements were taken during main business hours on clear summer days. All locations were flat, unobstructed, had broad sidewalks, and were sufficiently uncrowded to allow pedestrians to move at potentially maximum speeds. To control for the effects of socializing, only pedestrians walking alone were used.Children, individuals with obvious physical handicaps, and window-shoppers were not timed. Thirty-five men and 35 women were timed in most cities. » (P. 186). Precise specification of the sampling process in this way makes data collection manageable for the observers, and it also provides some control over important extraneous variables. For example, by making their observations on clear summer days in all countries, Levine and Norenzayan controlled for effects of the weather on people’s walking speeds.In Levine and Norenzayan’s study, measurement was relatively straightforward. They simply measured out a 60-foot distance along a city sidewalk and then used a stopwatch to time participants as they walked over that distance. 90017 90014 As another example, researchers Robert Kraut and Robert Johnston wanted to study bowlers ‘reactions to their shots, both when they were facing the pins and then when they turned toward their companions (Kraut & Johnston, 1979). But what «reactions» should they observe? Based on previous research and their own pilot testing, Kraut and Johnston created a list of reactions that included «closed smile,» «open smile,» «laugh,» «neutral face,» «look down,» «look away,» and «face cover» (covering one’s face with one’s hands).The observers committed this list to memory and then practiced by coding the reactions of bowlers who had been videotaped. During the actual study, the observers spoke into an audio recorder, describing the reactions they observed. Among the most interesting results of this study was that bowlers rarely smiled while they still faced the pins. They were much more likely to smile after they turned toward their companions, suggesting that smiling is not purely an expression of happiness but also a form of social communication.90017 90014 When the observations require a judgment on the part of the observers-as in Kraut and Johnston’s study-this process is often described as 90011 coding 90012. Coding generally requires clearly defining a set of target behaviors. The observers then categorize participants individually in terms of which behavior they have engaged in and the number of times they engaged in each behavior. The observers might even record the duration of each behavior. The target behaviors must be defined in such a way that different observers code them in the same way.This difficulty with coding is the issue of interrater reliability, as mentioned in Chapter 4. Researchers are expected to demonstrate the interrater reliability of their coding procedure by having multiple raters code the same behaviors independently and then showing that the different observers are in close agreement. Kraut and Johnston, for example, video recorded a subset of their participants ‘reactions and had two observers independently code them. The two observers showed that they agreed on the reactions that were exhibited 97% of the time, indicating good interrater reliability.90017 90014 One of the primary benefits of structured observation is that it is far more efficient than naturalistic and participant observation. Since the researchers are focused on specific behaviors this reduces time and expense. Also, often times the environment is structured to encourage the behaviors of interested which again means that researchers do not have to invest as much time in waiting for the behaviors of interest to naturally occur. Finally, researchers using this approach can clearly exert greater control over the environment.However, when researchers exert more control over the environment it may make the environment less natural which decreases external validity. It is less clear for instance whether structured observations made in a laboratory environment will generalize to a real world environment. Furthermore, since researchers engaged in structured observation are often not disguised there may be more concerns with reactivity. 90017 90010 90011 Case Studies 90012 90013 90014 A 90011 case study 90012 is an in-depth examination of an individual.Sometimes case studies are also completed on social units (e.g., a cult) and events (e.g., a natural disaster). Most commonly in psychology, however, case studies provide a detailed description and analysis of an individual. Often the individual has a rare or unusual condition or disorder or has damage to a specific region of the brain. 90017 90014 Like many observational research methods, case studies tend to be more qualitative in nature. Case study methods involve an in-depth, and often a longitudinal examination of an individual.Depending on the focus of the case study, individuals may or may not be observed in their natural setting. If the natural setting is not what is of interest, then the individual may be brought into a therapist’s office or a researcher’s lab for study. Also, the bulk of the case study report will focus on in-depth descriptions of the person rather than on statistical analyses. With that said some quantitative data may also be included in the write-up of a case study. For instance, an individuals ‘depression score may be compared to normative scores or their score before and after treatment may be compared.As with other qualitative methods, a variety of different methods and tools can be used to collect information on the case. For instance, interviews, naturalistic observation, structured observation, psychological testing (e.g., IQ test), and / or physiological measurements (e.g., brain scans) may be used to collect information on the individual. 90017 90014 HM is one of the most notorious case studies in psychology. HM suffered from intractable and very severe epilepsy. A surgeon localized HM’s epilepsy to his medial temporal lobe and in 1953 he removed large sections of his hippocampus in an attempt to stop the seizures.The treatment was a success, in that it resolved his epilepsy and his IQ and personality were unaffected. However, the doctors soon realized that HM exhibited a strange form of amnesia, called anterograde amnesia. HM was able to carry out a conversation and he could remember short strings of letters, digits, and words. Basically, his short term memory was preserved. However, HM could not commit new events to memory. He lost the ability to transfer information from his short-term memory to his long term memory, something memory researchers call consolidation.So while he could carry on a conversation with someone, he would completely forget the conversation after it ended. This was an extremely important case study for memory researchers because it suggested that there’s a dissociation between short-term memory and long-term memory, it suggested that these were two different abilities sub-served by different areas of the brain. It also suggested that the temporal lobes are particularly important for consolidating new information (i.e., for transferring information from short-term memory to long-term memory).90017 90014 90087 90088 90017 90014 www.youtube.com/watch?v=KkaXNvzE4pk 90017 90014 The history of psychology is filled with influential cases studies, such as Sigmund Freud’s description of «Anna O.» (See Note 6.1 «The Case of» Anna O. «») and John Watson and Rosalie Rayner’s description of Little Albert (Watson & Rayner, 1920), who learned to fear a white rat-along with other furry objects-when the researchers made a loud noise while he was playing with the rat. 90017 90094 90095 The Case of «Anna O.»90096 90097 90014 Sigmund Freud used the case of a young woman he called «Anna O.» to illustrate many principles of his theory of psychoanalysis (Freud, 1961). (Her real name was Bertha Pappenheim, and she was an early feminist who went on to make important contributions to the field of social work.) Anna had come to Freud’s colleague Josef Breuer around 1880 with a variety of odd physical and psychological symptoms. One of them was that for several weeks she was unable to drink any fluids. According to Freud, 90017 90014 She would take up the glass of water that she longed for, but as soon as it touched her lips she would push it away like someone suffering from hydrophobia…. She lived only on fruit, such as melons, etc., so as to lessen her tormenting thirst. (P. 9) 90017 90014 But according to Freud, a breakthrough came one day while Anna was under hypnosis. 90017 90014 [S] he grumbled about her English «lady-companion,» whom she did not care for, and went on to describe, with every sign of disgust, how she had once gone into this lady’s room and how her little dog-horrid creature! -had drunk out of a glass there. The patient had said nothing, as she had wanted to be polite.After giving further energetic expression to the anger she had held back, she asked for something to drink, drank a large quantity of water without any difficulty, and awoke from her hypnosis with the glass at her lips; and thereupon the disturbance vanished, never to return. (P.9) 90017 90014 Freud’s interpretation was that Anna had repressed the memory of this incident along with the emotion that it triggered and that this was what had caused her inability to drink. Furthermore, her recollection of the incident, along with her expression of the emotion she had repressed, caused the symptom to go away.90017 90014 As an illustration of Freud’s theory, the case study of Anna O. is quite effective. As evidence for the theory, however, it is essentially worthless. The description provides no way of knowing whether Anna had really repressed the memory of the dog drinking from the glass, whether this repression had caused her inability to drink, or whether recalling this «trauma» relieved the symptom. It is also unclear from this case study how typical or atypical Anna’s experience was. 90017 90014 Figure 10.1 Anna O. «Anna O.» was the subject of a famous case study used by Freud to illustrate the principles of psychoanalysis. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pappenheim_1882.jpg 90017 90014 Case studies are useful because they provide a level of detailed analysis not found in many other research methods and greater insights may be gained from this more detailed analysis. As a result of the case study, the researcher may gain a sharpened understanding of what might become important to look at more extensively in future more controlled research.Case studies are also often the only way to study rare conditions because it may be impossible to find a large enough sample to individuals with the condition to use quantitative methods. Although at first glance a case study of a rare individual might seem to tell us little about ourselves, they often do provide insights into normal behavior. The case of HM provided important insights into the role of the hippocampus in memory consolidation. However, it is important to note that while case studies can provide 90049 insights 90050 into certain areas and variables to study, and can be useful in helping develop theories, they should never be used as evidence for theories.In other words, case studies can be used as inspiration to formulate theories and hypotheses, but those hypotheses and theories then need to be formally tested using more rigorous quantitative methods. 90017 90014 The reason case studies should not be used to provide support for theories is that they suffer from problems with internal and external validity. Case studies lack the proper controls that true experiments contain. As such they suffer from problems with internal validity, so they can not be used to determine causation.For instance, during HM’s surgery, the surgeon may have accidentally lesioned another area of ​​HM’s brain (indeed questioning into the possibility of a separate brain lesion began after HM’s death and dissection of his brain) and that lesion may have contributed to his inability to consolidate new information. The fact is, with case studies we can not rule out these sorts of alternative explanations. So as with all observational methods case studies do not permit determination of causation. In addition, because case studies are often of a single individual, and typically a very abnormal individual, researchers can not generalize their conclusions to other individuals.Recall that with most research designs there is a trade-off between internal and external validity, with case studies, however, there are problems with both internal validity and external validity. So there are limits both to the ability to determine causation and to generalize the results. A final limitation of case studies is that ample opportunity exists for the theoretical biases of the researcher to color or bias the case description. Indeed, there have been accusations that the woman who studied HM destroyed a lot of her data that were not published and she has been called into question for destroying contradictory data that did not support her theory about how memories are consolidated.There is a fascinating New York Times article that describes some of the controversies that ensued after HM’s death and analysis of his brain that can be found at: https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/07/magazine/the- brain-that-couldnt-remember.html? _r = 0 90017 90010 90011 Archival Research 90012 90013 90014 Another approach that is often considered observational research is the use of 90011 archival research 90012 which involves analyzing data that have already been collected for some other purpose.An example is a study by Brett Pelham and his colleagues on «implicit egotism» -the tendency for people to prefer people, places, and things that are similar to themselves (Pelham, Carvallo, & Jones, 2005). In one study, they examined Social Security records to show that women with the names Virginia, Georgia, Louise, and Florence were especially likely to have moved to the states of Virginia, Georgia, Louisiana, and Florida, respectively. 90017 90014 As with naturalistic observation, measurement can be more or less straightforward when working with archival data.For example, counting the number of people named Virginia who live in various states based on Social Security records is relatively straightforward. But consider a study by Christopher Peterson and his colleagues on the relationship between optimism and health using data that had been collected many years before for a study on adult development (Peterson, Seligman, & Vaillant, 1988). In the 1940s, healthy male college students had completed an open-ended questionnaire about difficult wartime experiences.In the late 1980s, Peterson and his colleagues reviewed the men’s questionnaire responses to obtain a measure of explanatory style-their habitual ways of explaining bad events that happen to them. More pessimistic people tend to blame themselves and expect long-term negative consequences that affect many aspects of their lives, while more optimistic people tend to blame outside forces and expect limited negative consequences. To obtain a measure of explanatory style for each participant, the researchers used a procedure in which all negative events mentioned in the questionnaire responses, and any causal explanations for them were identified and written on index cards.These were given to a separate group of raters who rated each explanation in terms of three separate dimensions of optimism-pessimism. These ratings were then averaged to produce an explanatory style score for each participant. The researchers then assessed the statistical relationship between the men’s explanatory style as undergraduate students and archival measures of their health at approximately 60 years of age. The primary result was that the more optimistic the men were as undergraduate students, the healthier they were as older men.Pearson’s 90049 r 90050 was +.25. 90017 90014 This method is an example of 90011 content analysis 90012 -a family of systematic approaches to measurement using complex archival data. Just as structured observation requires specifying the behaviors of interest and then noting them as they occur, content analysis requires specifying keywords, phrases, or ideas and then finding all occurrences of them in the data. These occurrences can then be counted, timed (e.g., the amount of time devoted to entertainment topics on the nightly news show), or analyzed in a variety of other ways.90017 90002 Key Takeaways 90003 90136 90005 There are several different approaches to observational research including naturalistic observation, participant observation, structured observation, case studies, and archival research. 90006 90005 Naturalistic observation is used to observe people in their natural setting, participant observation involves becoming an active member of the group being observed, structured observation involves coding a small number of behaviors in a quantitative manner, case studies are typically used to collect in-depth information on a single individual, and archival research involves analysing existing data.90006 90141 90002 Exercises 90003 90144 90005 Practice: Find and read a published case study in psychology. (Use 90146 case study 90147 as a key term in a PsycINFO search.) Then do the following: 90136 90005 Describe one problem related to internal validity. 90006 90005 Describe one problem related to external validity. 90006 90005 Generate one hypothesis suggested by the case study that might be interesting to test in a systematic single-subject or group study. 90006 90141 90006 90009 90158.90000 Observation: a method of research in psychology 90001 90002 Observation in psychology is a descriptive psychological research method, consisting in a purposeful and organized perception and recording of the behavior of the object under study. Observation is a purposeful, organized and definitely fixed perception of the object under study. When observing phenomena, they are studied directly in the conditions in which they occur in real life.90003 90002 90005 Where Applied 90006 90003 90002 Together with introspection, observation is considered the oldest psychological method. Scientific observation began to be widely applied, beginning from the end of the XIX century, in areas where fixation of features of human behavior under different conditions — in clinical, social, pedagogical psychology, developmental psychology, and from the beginning of the 0th century — in labor psychology is of particular importance. Observation is applied when it is either impossible or inadmissible to interfere with the natural course of the process.90003 90002 90005 Types of observation 90006 90003 90002 Observation, as a method of research in psychology, can be different. It is conscious and there is no, external and internal, continuous and selective, systematic and not. See → 90003 90002 90005 Features of the method 90006 90003 90002 Observation is used where the intervention of the experimenter will disturb the process of human interaction with the environment. This method is indispensable in the case when it is necessary to get a holistic picture of what is happening and to reflect the behavior of individuals in their entirety.90003 90002 The main features of the observation method are: 90003 90002 • the direct connection of the observer and the observed object; 90003 90002 • bias (emotional color) of observation; 90003 90002 • complexity (sometimes — impossibility) of repeated observation. 90003 90002 In natural sciences, the observer, as a rule, does not influence the studied process (phenomenon). In psychology, there is a problem of interaction between the observer and the observed.If the subject knows that he is being watched, then the presence of the researcher influences his behavior. The limited nature of the observation method has led to the development of other, more «perfect» methods of empirical research: experiment and measurement. See Druzhinin V.N. Experimental Psychology. — St. Petersburg. 2000 and Pros and cons of the method of observation 90003 90002 90005 Subject of observation 90006 90003 90002 Subjects of observation are various features of behavior.The objects of research can be: 90003 90002 • Verbal behavior, including the content, duration and intensity of speech, 90003 90002 • Nonverbal behavior — expression of the face, eyes, body, expressive movements, etc., 90003 90002 • Movements of people — distance between people, physical impacts (touches, tremors, blows, etc.). 90003 90002 That is, only what can be objectively registered is able to act as an object of observation. Thus, the researcher does not observe the properties of the psyche, he registers only those manifestations of the object that are available for fixation.And only based on the assumption that the psyche finds its manifestation in behavior, a psychologist can build hypotheses about mental properties, based on the data obtained by observation. 90003 90002 90005 How to conduct observation 90006 90003 90002 The results of observations conducted for research purposes are usually recorded in special protocols. It is good, when not one person conducts the observation, but several, and then the obtained data are compared and generalized (by the method of generalization of independent observations).90003 90002 When using the surveillance method, it is necessary to fully observe the following requirements: 90003 90002 • Pre-schedule an observation program, highlighting the most important objects and stages of observation. 90003 90002 • Observations should not affect the natural course of the phenomenon being studied. 90003 90002 • It is advisable to observe the same mental phenomenon on different persons. Even if the object of study is a particular person, it is better and deeper to know it, comparing it to others.90003 90002 • Observation should be repeated, and in the study of personality — systematic. It is important that it be successive, that is, repeated observations take into account the information obtained during previous observations. 90003 90002 90005 Stages of research by observation 90006 90003 90002 1. Determine the subject of observation, the object, the situation. 90003 90002 2. Choosing a way to monitor and record data. 90003 90002 3. Create an observation plan.90003 90002 4. Selection of the method of processing the results. 90003 90002 5. Observation itself. 90003 90002 6. Processing and interpretation of information received. 90003 90002 90005 Means of observation 90006 90003 90002 Observation can be carried out directly by the researcher, or by means of instruments of observation and fixation of its results. These include audio, photo, video equipment, special surveillance cards. 90003 90002 Observation is opposed to experiment.This opposition is based on two positions: 90003 90002 1. The passivity of the observer — the observer does not change the surrounding reality. 90003 90002 2. Immediacy — the observer records in the protocol what he sees. 90003 90002 90005 The APA Code of Ethics and Observations 90006 90003 90002 The Code of Ethics of the American Psychological Association, or the APA, permits observations to be conducted subject to certain rules and certain precautions. Here are some of them: 90003 90002 1.If research is conducted in a public place, obtaining informed consent of the participants is not considered necessary. Otherwise, it is necessary to obtain their consent. 90003 90002 2. Psychologists should do everything possible to avoid causing harm to the participants of the study, and in case of its inability to avoid it, to reduce the alleged damage. 90003 90002 3. Psychologists should minimize invasion of privacy. 90003 90002 4. Psychologists do not disclose confidential data about participants in their research.90003 90104 .90000 Observational learning | psychology | Britannica 90001 90002 90003 Observational learning 90004, method of learning that consists of observing and modeling another individual’s behavior, attitudes, or emotional expressions. Although it is commonly believed that the observer will copy the model, American psychologist Albert Bandura stressed that individuals may simply learn from the behavior rather than imitate it. Observational learning is a major component of Bandura’s social learning theory.He also emphasized that four conditions were necessary in any form of observing and modeling behavior: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. 90005 90002 Read More on This Topic 90005 90002 motivation: Observational learning 90005 90002 In the third type of learning technique, observational learning, or modeling, a new behaviour is learned simply by watching someone else… 90005 90012 Conditions for observational learning 90013 90012 Attention 90013 90002 If an organism is going to learn anything from a model, he or she must be paying attention to it and the behavior it exhibits. Many conditions can affect the observer’s attention. For instance, if the observer is sleepy, ill, or distracted, he or she will be less likely to learn the modeled behavior and imitate it at a later date. In addition, the characteristics of the model have an influence on the observer’s attention.Bandura and others have shown that humans pay more attention to models that are attractive, similar to them, or prestigious and are rewarded for their behaviors. This explains the appeal that athletes have on the behavior of young children and that successful adults have on college students. Unfortunately, this aspect of modeling can also be used in detrimental ways. For example, if young children witness gang members gaining status or money, they may imitate those behaviors in an effort to gain similar rewards.90005 90012 Retention 90013 90002 The second requirement of observational learning is being able to remember the behavior that was witnessed. If the human or animal does not remember the behavior, there is a less than probable chance that they will imitate it. 90005 90012 Reproduction 90013 90002 This requisite of behavior concerns the physical and mental ability of the individual to copy the behavior he or she observed. For instance, a young child may observe a college basketball player dunk a ball.Later, when the child has a basketball, he or she may attempt to dunk a ball just like the college player. However, the young child is not nearly as physically developed as the older college player and, no matter how many times he or she tries, will not be able to reach the basket to dunk the ball. An older child or an adult might be able to dunk the ball but likely only after quite a bit of practice. Similarly, a young colt observes another horse in the herd jump over the creek while running in the pasture.After observing the model’s jumping behavior, the colt attempts to do the same only to land in the middle of the creek. He simply was not big enough or did not have long enough legs to clear the water. He could, however, after physical growth and some practice, eventually be able to replicate the other horse’s jump. 90005 Get exclusive access to content from our тисяча сімсот шістьдесят вісім First Edition with your subscription. Subscribe today 90012 Motivation 90013 90002 Perhaps the most important aspect of observational learning involves motivation.If the human or animal does not have a reason for imitating the behavior, then no amount of attention, retention, or reproduction will overcome the lack of motivation. Bandura identified several motivating factors for imitation. These include knowing that the model was previously reinforced for the behavior, being offered an incentive to perform, or observing the model receiving reinforcement for the behavior. These factors can also be negative motivations. For instance, if the observer knew that the model was punished for the behavior, was threatened for exhibiting the behavior, or observed the model being punished for the behavior, then the probability of mimicking the behavior is less.90005 90012 Applications of observational learning 90013 90002 Modeling has been used successfully in many therapeutic conditions. Many therapists have used forms of modeling to assist their patients to overcome phobias. For example, adults with claustrophobia may observe a model in a video as they move closer and closer to an enclosed area before entering it. Once the model reaches the enclosed area, for instance a closet, he or she will open the door, enter it, and then close the door. The observer will be taught relaxation techniques and be told to practice them anytime he or she becomes anxious while watching the film.The end result is to continue observing the model until the person can enter the closet himself or herself. 90005 90002 Bandura’s findings in the Bobo doll experiments have greatly influenced children’s television programming. Bandura filmed his students physically attacking the Bobo doll, an inflatable doll with a rounded bottom that pops back up when knocked down. A student was placed in the room with the Bobo doll. The student punched the doll, yelled «sockeroo» at it, kicked it, hit it with hammers, and sat on it.Bandura then showed this film to young children. Their behavior was taped when in the room with the doll. The children imitated the behaviors of the student and at times even became more aggressive toward the doll than what they had observed. Another group of young children observed a student being nice to the doll. Ironically, this group of children did not imitate the positive interaction of the model. Bandura conducted a large number of varied scenarios of this study and found similar events even when the doll was a live clown.These findings have prompted many parents to monitor the television shows their children watch and the friends or peers with which they associate. Unfortunately, the parental saying «Do as I say, not as I do» does not hold true for children. Children are more likely to imitate the behaviors versus the instructions of their parents. 90005 90002 One of the most famous instances of observational learning in animals involves the blue tit, a small European bird. During the 1920s and through the 1940s, many people reported that the cream from the top of the milk being delivered to their homes was being stolen.The cream-stealing incidents spread all over Great Britain. After much speculation about the missing cream, it was discovered that the blue tit was the culprit. Specifically, one bird had learned to peck through the foil top of the milk container and suck the cream out of the bottle. It did not take long before other blue tit birds imitated the behavior and spread it through the country. 90005 Sherril M. Stone The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica 90012 Learn More in these related Britannica articles: 90013 90040 90041 90002 90003 motivation: Observational learning 90004 90005 90002 In the third type of learning technique, observational learning, or modeling, a new behaviour is learned simply by watching someone else behave.In a very real sense, such learning is the ability to profit from another’s successes or mistakes. This type of learning … 90005 90048 90041 90002 90003 animal learning: Imitation and observational learning 90004 90005 90002 An artificial, laboratory example of observational learning would be to allow an observer rat to watch a demonstrator rat pressing a lever for food.If the observer has never before pressed a lever and, given the opportunity, now does so much more rapidly than another rat denied the opportunity to … 90005 90048 90041 90002 90003 Albert Bandura 90004 90005 90002 Albert Bandura, Canadian-born American psychologist and originator of social cognitive theory who is probably best known for his modeling study on aggression, referred to as the «Bobo doll» experiment, which demonstrated that children can learn behaviours through the observation of adults…. 90005 90048 90065 .90000 Observational Techniques in Psychology — Term Paper 90001 90002 Similar Documents 90003 90004 90005 Premium Essay 90006 90007 Observational Research 90008 90005…Observational Research and its Components Social Psychology Dr. Deborah Harris-Sims July 9, 2011 Observational Research and its Components Social psychology has three well renowned scientific methods for research. These are observational, correlational, and experimental techniques. This paper will explain that the true goal of observational research is description. To understand behavior so that it can be predicted, controlled, or explained, a scientist must describe it accurately (Franzoi, 2009) which I will explain.Observational research is a social technique that involves direct observation of a subject in it natural setting. It involves the recording test results and not manipulating any of the variables, while being able to be broken down into three categories, naturalistic observation, participant observation, and archival research. Naturalistic observation involves the examination of a subject and its behavior in its natural environment. Participant observation involves the examination of a subject and its behavior in its natural environment as a member of the study group.Example, a test is conducted on underage drinking and the observer is a party guest where alcohol is being served. The third and final type of observational research is archival research. Archival research involves the examination of pre-existing records of a group, individual, or culture. It is mainly used to study the beliefs and norms of a specific culture …. 90006 90005 Words: 388 — Pages: 2 90006 90004 90005 Free Essay 90006 90007 Organizational Psychology 90008 90005…In saying this, many have confused organizational psychology with organizational behavior. While organizational behavior places focus on the organization itself, organizational psychology focuses on intervention with an organization’s key objectives. Explain the role of research and statistics in organizational psychology The role of research … 90006 90005 Words: 812 — Pages: 4 90006 90004 90005 Premium Essay 90006 90007 Organizational Psychology 90008 90005…Organizational psychology is mostly focused on group-type settings, most commonly in offices and workplace psychology. Industrial psychology also ties into organizational psychology by applying the methods and principals of psychology to the workplace. Research and Statistics The role of research and statistics in organizational psychology is incredibly important to the practice of organizational psychology. Psychologist use scientific investigations to answer a variety of research… 90006 90005 Words: 864 — Pages: 4 90006 90004 90005 Premium Essay 90006 90007 Nursing 90008 90005…Social Psychology 11.30am — 1.00pm Throughout this essay I am going to discuss main aims and procedures of psychology from academic perspective, what psychology is, the founding fathers of psychology, main issues concerning psychologist, different branches of psychology and why psychology is form of science. The purposes of psychology is focusing on research and theories and understanding psychological area.While some psychologists work on applied psychology to gain knowledge. Psychologist involved in research applies psychology during some point in their career. Clinical psychology is among various principles of psychology aims at developing knowledge and research method which they continue to build up and treat with psychological issues. Psychology is the science discipline to understand behaviours of a person. The goal is to understand people by establishing general principles and researching cases.The four goals of psychology are description, explanation, prediction and influence. Description is identifying behaviours. Explanation is the reason for mental behaviour. Prediction is offering hypothesis about sets of conditions produces manner of behaving and mental processes. Influence is using the results of research to solve practical problems that involves behaviour. The specialised meanings in psychology are behaviourism, functionalism, individualism, ethnocentrism, introspection and pragmatism…. 90006 90005 Words: 2531 — Pages: 11 90006 90004 90005 Premium Essay 90006 90007 Signafincant 90008 90005…Final Exam Social Psychology Professor Anderson-Woodard Alfreda Leonard June 17, 2011 Cognitive dissonance — was originally based on the concept of cognitive consistency, but is now more related to self-concept theory. When people do something that violates their view of themselves, this causes an uncomfortable state of dissonance that motivates a change in either attitudes or behavior. Cognitive dissonance is an uncomfortable feeling caused by holding conflicting ideas simultaneously.The theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance. They do this by changing their attitudes, beliefs, and actions. [2] Dissonance is also reduced by justifying, blaming, and denying. It is one of the most influential and extensively studied theories in social psychology. Observational learning (social learning) — suggests that behavior can be acquired by observation and imitation of others, unlike traditional learning theories which require reinforcement or punishment for learning to occur.Self-perception theory — emphasizes that we observe ourselves in the same manner that we observe others, and draw conclusions about our likes and dislikes. Extrinsic self-perceptions can lead to the overjustification effect. Self-verification theory — focuses on people’s desire to be known and understood by others …. 90006 90005 Words: 1003 — Pages: 5 90006 90004 90005 Premium Essay 90006 90007 Study Only 90008 90005…There are five different types of observational study which can be covert meaning secretive or overt meaning open to all involved. Observational studies are not usually experimental as there are no independent or dependant variables as this method is a more natural type of study in psychology. Participant observation is when the researcher takes part in their own observation with the participants. A non-participant study is where the researcher keeps his or her distance while observing the participants behaviours during the study.Unlike the others the structured observation method is a semi-experimental observational study. It is a planned observation and recording of behaviours as they happen in a controlled environment. The unstructured observation is a spontaneous observation of behaviours or events while they are happening in their natural environment. The naturalistic observation is a planned observation of natural behaviours in their environment.A participant observational study can be beneficial as the researcher is part of the environment of the study allowing an insider view of their own study. Non participant observational studies can be seen as a good way of researching the study, as the researcher avoids contact with the participants and this could be because the observer could cause the participants to act in an unnatural way making the end results of the experiment inaccurate; this is called the observer approach…. 90006 90005 Words: 975 — Pages: 4 90006 90004 90005 Premium Essay 90006 90007 Homework Week 3 90008 90005…Observational learning occurs when one observes another’s behaviors, which enables one to reenact those behaviors. In the workplace observational learning is used in a few ways. For example: whenever a manager started to train an employee they used instructional videos, so that the new employees could observe the job functions they were to undertake. Next, normally the manager would take the new employees into the actual work area that they would occupy and allow them to observe someone performing the job task.After that, the manager would pair a new employee with an employee that performed their job title well enough to train another employee. This allowed the new employee to observe the other employee, which enabled the new employee to learn though observing the other employees behaviors (Whitaker, 2012). The social learning theory, a system of learning most commonly associated with behaviorist Albert Bandura, is most commonly applied in educational settings. You can also apply this theory, which argues that people learn from each other through observation and socialization.A good example is: to model behavior for employees. The first step in teaching a behavior in the social learning theory is modeling that behavior. Instead of simply telling employees what they want them to do, leaders should physically model the behavior, acting out the process they hope those under them will follow. By seeing the behavior modeled, … 90006 90005 Words: 965 — Pages: 4 90006 90004 90005 Premium Essay 90006 90007 Ass 01 90008 90005…TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 Plagiarism Declaration 2 2 Assignment Table 3 3 References 5 Plagiarism Declaration | I know that plagiarism is wrong.Plagiarism is using another’s work and pretending that it is one’s own work. | | | | I have used the American Psychological Association (APA) as the convention for citation and referencing. Each significant | | Contribution to, and quoted in, this assignment from the work, or works of other people has been attributed and has been | | Cited and referenced.| | | | This assignment is my own work. | | | | I have not allowed, and will not allow, anyone to copy my work with the intention of passing it off as his or her own work.| | | | I acknowledge that copying someone else’s assignment, or …… 90006 90005 Words: 1753 — Pages: 8 90006 90004 90005 Free Essay 90006 90007 An Observational Study to Investigate Gender Differences in Touching Behaviour in a Social Situation 90008 90005…An Observational study to investigate gender differences in touching behaviour in a social situation Name: Institution: Course: Tutor: Date: Abstract The aim of this study was to conduct an investigative observational study into gender differences in touch behavior in a social situation. A study by Henley (1973) concluded existence of gender asymmetry — a tendency for men to be significantly more likely to touch women than vice versa.The investigation was conducted within a shopping precinct in Washington Metropolis, following a naturalistic observational methodology. It uses independent design and random sampling of 10 young couples of opposite sex aged between 13 and 19 years. The study excludes same sex couples so as to enable testing of the hypothesis: tendency of adolescent males to touch adolescent girls in public is greater than the reverse. Findings reveal greater overall touch tendency for adolescent males to touch females than vice versa; a tendency for adolescent males to initiate touch than females.It also shows a tendency for greater adolescent female same-gender compared to adolescent male same-gender touch. The study results also show greater tendency for adolescent fema.les to react more positively to touch relative to their male counterparts. The findings support the hypothesis and Henley’s (1973) touching behavior model. Thus, the alternative hypothesis is accepted while the null hypothesis is rejected …. 90006 90005 Words: 2687 — Pages: 11 90006 90004 90005 Premium Essay 90006 90007 Pysc 90008 90005… | Topic | Question | Factual | Conceptual | Applied | | | Type | | | | | | Multiple Choice | 1 | 2 | | | Introduction | | | | | | | Essay | | | | | | Multiple Choice | 6,19,21 | 9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,18 | 3,4,5,7,8,17,20 | | Social Psychology: An | | | | | | Empirical Science | | | | | | | Essay | 240 | | | | | Multiple Choice | 24,28,36,41,54,59,73,74,75, | 27,29,31,33,34,35,42,43,44, | 22,23,25,26, 30,32,37, | | Research Designs | | 78,82,83,86,89,106,111,112, | 46,47,48,49,50,55,56,66,67, | 38,39,40,45,51,55,53 ,… 90006 90005 Words: 19309 — Pages: 78 90006 90004 90005 Premium Essay 90006 90007 Organizational Development Paper 90008 90005…Running Head: ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Organizational Psychology Paper June Forbes-Nixon PSY 428 21st March 2011 Facilitator — Maria Cuddy-Casey Defining Organizational Psychology Organizational psychology is a field that utilizes scientific methodology to better understand the behavior of individuals working in organizational settings.In principle, organizational psychology focuses on workplace, including its workers, and organizations that employ them. Organizational psychology gives hiring tests, study the best ways to train employees, investigate how to improve work conditions, and analyze how management and employees can get along better. Organizational psychology should be viewed as a science; it is based on scientific studies of behavior in both organization and laboratory settings. Organizational psychology is part of a broader field of study in its own right; however, it is actually part of the broader field of industrial / organizational psychology, (Jex & Britt, 2008).Industrial psychology is defined as the application of methods and principles of psychology to the workplace using scientific methods to study behavior in organizations. Industrial psychology deals with recruitment, selection, classification, compensation, performance appraisal and training of employees. Whereas, organizational psychology is concerned with socialization, motivation, occupational stress, leadership, group performance and organization development …. 90006 90005 Words: 973 — Pages: 4 90006 90004 90005 Premium Essay 90006 90007 Observational Learning: More Than Trial and Error 90008 90005…RUNNING HEAD: Observational Observational Learning: More then Trial-and-Error Calvin Smith, Jr. Middlesex County College PSY-123 3/6/2012 Introduction Observational: based on observation or experience.Merriam-Webster (2012) Learning: A systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience. King, L. A. (2010). But what is Observational Learning? According to Albert Bandura, observational learning, also called imitation or modeling, is learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates behavior. King, L. A. (2010). This process, in theory, simplifies learning and eliminates the potentially hazardous and tedious trial-and-error periods in other forms of learning.I have found this to be very true in my own life in the constant teachings of my 8-year-old son. Summary of Theory Bandura’s Model of Observational Learning applies 4 elements to effectively achieve learning; Attention, Retention, Motor Reproduction and Reinforcement. The belief here is that through these elements a person can essentially be given the experience step by step and hence learn from observing someone else’s actions and advice.The first process that must occur is attention. In order for a person to be able to imitate an action they must attend to what the model is saying or doing …. 90006 90005 Words: 889 — Pages: 4 90006 90004 90005 Premium Essay 90006 90007 Sexual Strategiestheory 90008 90005…SEXUAL Strategies Theory: An Evolutionary Perspective on Human Mating Winifred Gordon Southern New Hampshire University Sexual Strategies Theory: An Evolutionary Perspective on Human Mating Summary Because of the lower level of minimum parental investment incurred by men, short-term mating will represent a larger component of men’s sexual strategies than women’s sexual strategies (Buss & Schmitt, 1993).An Evolutionary Perspective on Human Mating by Buss & Schmitt examines the background on evolutionary theory when it relates to the human mating strategies. The article expands on how both men and women have particular psychological mechanism that triggers which relationships, short term or long term will help them choose a partner for life, when it relates to mating relationships. The article discussed the effects on long-term relationships and how these types of relationships, compares to the short term, which are known to be called brief affairs, one stand, or temporary liaison time lengths.»Long temporal durations, however, mating relationships can last for a few months, a few days, a few hours, or even a few minutes» (Buss & Schmitt, 1993). The article described key hypotheses and predictions that give an outlined summary on theories that were empirically tested that identify sensitive problem in relations with sexual accessibility fertility, commitment seeking and avoidance, paternity certainty, male and females value, and parental investment. In …… 90006 90005 Words: 3302 — Pages: 14 90006 90004 90005 Premium Essay 90006 90007 Psy 203 90008 90005…University of Phoenix Material Week 1 Assignment Worksheet Matching Match the following descriptions to the correct perspective: 1. ___ B .___ perspective focuses on how learning experiences affect behavior, and focuses on behavior that is observable. 2. __E___ perspective focuses on the effect of unresolved conflicts from childhood, and how those conflicts unconsciously shape behavior.3. __D___ perspective focuses on free will, conscious choices, and self-awareness, and views humans as distinct individuals with unique characteristics. 4. ___C__ perspective examines the mental processes used to obtain knowledge, and focuses on how information is processed, stored, retrieved, and manipulated. 5. __A___ perspective focuses on how factors like age, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, and income level influence behavior, attitudes, and mental processes.A. Sociocultural B. Behavioral C. Cognitive D. Humanistic E. Psychodynamic Table Provide a description of the function of the structures or hormones listed.| Structure | Hormone (s) released (if applicable) | Description or function | | Frontal lobe | CRH Corticotropin-releasing hormone | Helps with decision making | | Somatosensory cortex | CRH | Sensory receptive area for the sense of …… 90006 90005 Words 2066 — Pages: 9 90006 90004 90005 Free Essay 90006 90007 Theories 90008 90005…For example, many dog ​​trainers use classical conditioning techniques to help people train their pets. These techniques are also useful in the treatment of phobias or anxiety problems. Teachers are able to apply classical conditioning in the class by creating a positive classroom environment to help students overcome anxiety or fear. Pairing an anxiety-provoking situation, such as performing in front of a group, with pleasant surroundings helps the student learn new … 90006 90005 Words 1020 — Pages: 5 90006 .